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I design a study to examine the relationship between education, measured as highest degree earned, and income. I suspect that MA/MS and PhDs signal the skill and ability of a person and results in a person earning more money. I explain my theoretical map to an economist colleague. She, however, argues that intelligence, possibly measured as IQ, actually determines how much education an individual receives and intelligence is what is rewarded by employers through higher incomes. Furthermore, she claims that including an intelligence measure in my models will reduce, and possibly eliminate, the bivariate relationship between education and income. According to her explanation, she believes that intelligence is a(n)

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