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Britain and the United States settled for a joint declaration of war aims when both countries pledged collective security, disarmament, self-determination, economic cooperation, and freedom of the seas by signing the

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- The Spanish crown established centralized control over much of theAmericas through the use of many bureaucratic offices staffed byappointed administrators.- Two large areas, one in Mexico and one in Peru, were each overseen by a viceroy, who reported directly to the Spanish king; viceroys were responsible for enforcing colonial policy.- This led to the creation of new economic systems based on forced labor.- A new colonial social hierarchy emerged based on birth: peninsulares, those born in Spain, were at the top; next came the Creoles, those born in the colonies to Spanish parents, and who would emerge as the elite class; followed by the mestizos, people with both European and native ancestors, and the mulattoes, who were of mixed European and African descent; at the bottom were the natives and people of African descent.
- In 1453, the Ottoman Turks, nomads from Central Asia, capturedthe Byzantine capital of Constantinople and renamed it Istanbul;Ottoman control continued until the 20th century.- Their military success and imperial expansion came from their command of gunpowder technology (diffused from China).- By the mid-1500s, this Empire was the largest and most powerful land empire in Europe and the Middle East.The Islamic empire quickly expanded as these people took control of much of the Middle East and then extended their control to the Balkans and the Crimean Peninsula, creating a multi-national empire. Managing such a culturally diverse land empire would prove challenging over time.
- Economic policies regulated interaction with outsiders and led to anincrease in commercial activity, as well as an increase in population.- New food crops, particularly foods from the Americas such asmaize and peanuts, were suitable for growing in China and over time led to a population increase.- Overseas trade became more extensive, particularly as demand for Chinese goods such as silk and porcelain increased.- European merchants, as well as Muslim and Asian traders, traded in China's two main port cities.- The Chinese merchant class grew in wealth and power.- In the 1570s, the Ming put forth a new policy-the Single Whip Tax System-which required a single national tax paid in the form of silver.- This policy had global implications, as China now had to fulfill a demand for silver.

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